INFORM - Issue 13 - National qualifications frameworks: contributing to better qualifications
What value do national qualifications add?
An NQF has no value without qualifications inside it. The ETF believes that NQFs should lead to better qualifications that are more relevant to the labour market and flexible enough for holders to progress between qualifications or combine them from different fields. Developing and implementing an NQF requires both technical and social/ institutional processes. NQFs introduce a common language – of levels, outcomes, credits, award types and so on – among stakeholders, in particular employers, sectoral representatives and the education world (ministries, qualifications authorities, schools etc.). This leads to a shared understanding and acceptance of concepts and implementation, policies and strategies. The most important of these is the use of learning outcomes for level descriptors in the framework and the definition of individual qualifications in the different NQF levels. Level descriptors are usually generic, while those for individual qualifications are more specific.
Outcomes tell us what is inside the qualification enhancing comprehension and transparency. This creates the basis of trust essential for the recognition and acceptance of individual qualifications. In an NQF, the levels typically share a common set of descriptors of the knowledge, skills and competences to be acquired by the learner. The same descriptors are used across general education, academic education, VET and adult learning qualifications, underscoring the relationship between them and allowing individuals, employers, qualifications authorities and training providers to compare and link qualifications offered by different institutions. In this way, NQFs help to illustrate potential learning pathways, enabling learners to choose and transfer between different types of qualifications at the same level (for example, between general, vocational and academic qualifications). They can also enable learners to progress to higher-level qualifications in the same field. Thus, NQFs can be a tool to help people manage their own careers.
In most ETF partner countries, a qualification has traditionally been obtainable only by taking a formal training course. But now countries are using NQFs to develop systems to validate non-formal and informal learning, usually for the first time. NQFs apply the same assessment standards to obtaining a qualification, no matter how the learner acquired the knowledge and skills necessary to achieve it. So NQFs can support recognition of skills acquired informally and give a boost to learning beyond formal education, particularly for adults.
NQFs are therefore lifelong learning instruments, linking general education, higher education and VET, defining learning pathways for individuals and encompassing systems and procedures to recognise skills acquired lifewide. Frameworks are also usually associated with quality assurance arrangements. To be included in an NQF and associated qualifications registers, qualifications must be validated against criteria and providers often have to be accredited to award the qualification. Assessments also have to be quality assured, or verified. In many ETF partner countries these are wholly new requirements, which should increase employer trust in qualifications.
In most cases, NQFs are established by laws before real implementation begins. Where ministries lead, the ETF observes two general approaches. One is driven by a labour ministry with an employability agenda, involving sectors and social partners and focussing on occupational standards. The second is led by an education ministry or higher education community and focuses on education standards. Ministries traditionally dominate education and training policy and in most ETF partner countries, social partner engagement in education and training is weak. But NQFs can provide a platform for social dialogue. They are usually developed by a range of actors, including ministries, employers, trades unions, education authorities, VET agencies and individual experts all working collaboratively on the framework, occupational standards and qualifications, thus supporting labour market relevance. Indeed, in some cases, notably Russia and Ukraine, employers have initiated the NQF process and in Turkey sectors play a strong role in developing and awarding vocational qualifications.
This wider stakeholder engagement is beginning to influence the design and content of curricula and qualifications. Traditionally ETF partner countries have used subject- or input-based curricula, but increasingly they are developing occupational standards to make vocational qualifications more relevant. Occupational standards – themselves a type of learning outcome – are normally developed by sectors or professional bodies and involve experts who practice the occupation. Basing qualifications on occupational standards and labour market demand, and linking them to higher-level qualifications and allowing for progression, raises their “market value”. Developing an NQF also deepens institutional capacity, especially in transition or developing countries. Some states establish new bodies such as qualifications authorities to design, construct and coordinate the framework. Others are starting to build different forms of sectoral organisations, while new quality assurance bodies are also emerging. The added value of NQFs is therefore in driving greater quality in qualifications and qualifications systems.

INFORM - Issue 13 - National qualifications frameworks: contributing to better qualifications
A qualifications framework as a common reference
The ETF is coordinating a regional project to support international cooperation in qualifications development and recognition. Egypt, Jordan, Morocco and Tunisia are developing qualifications in two economic sectors - construction and tourism. Two occupations were selected for each sector: bricklayer and site supervisor, and waiter and hotel receptionist, respectively. To compare qualifications, the EQF is used as a common reference. Experts from each country were asked to (re)describe the qualifications for the occupations in terms of knowledge, skills and competences against the EQF descriptors, resulting in common profiles. The project demonstrates that a common reference tool (in this case the EQF) can support the development of relevant national qualifications. The project also shows that no single institution can do all the work required. Reliable information on national qualifications and the necessary expertise to develop occupational standards requires a range of stakeholders, including ministries, sectors, qualification authorities and the social partners.
Developing relevant qualifications
The Turkish NQF provides a platform for cooperation between the government and sectors to develop outcomes-based occupational standards followed by sectoral qualifications. National occupational standards ensure the relevance of qualifications for adult training, which was previously often unrecognised. The Vocational Qualifications Authority coordinates this new system, while sectors are in charge of developing standards and certification processes. Now, in the second stage, a Turkish qualifications framework for lifelong learning is being developed. It builds on the same principles of quality and relevance and links higher education developments, sectoral qualifications and general, vocational and teacher training qualifications issued under the responsibility of the Ministry of National Education.
Quality enhancement
In Georgia, the NQF is an instrument for establishing a new approach to quality assurance in VET based on learning outcomes. The National Centre for Educational Quality Enhancement is in charge of quality-assuring the development of qualifications and their use in provision and assessment. It works with sectoral bodies as well as public and private providers. The Centre ensures that learning outcomes drive provision and accredited providers must use participatory self-assessment methods involving staff, students and external stakeholders to improve their efficiency. The new Georgian system requires the active involvement of the sectors and local companies working with providers. The Centre has also started developing recognition of prior learning through VET providers.
ETF partner countries
The worldwide surge in NQFs is not something that the ETF is observing without concern as they require considerable resources, capacity, expertise and time for development and implementation. The ETF does not advocate establishing NQFs indiscriminately; rather its position is to assist countries in finding fit-for-purpose solutions. Partner countries and regions differ in their socio-economic and demographic characteristics and in the types of qualifications needed. For example, some former Soviet states have retained large industrial conglomerates with highly specialised jobs, but younger people are now less inclined to train in narrow industrial occupations. In the southern Mediterranean, governments struggle to find decent jobs for a growing young workforce. Many people end up in informal subsistence jobs in agriculture or services. Qualified personnel are difficult to find in growth sectors such as tourism, construction or ICT. Traditional education and training systems struggle to address these and other problems, such as an oversupply of qualifications for which there is little demand on the labour market. Weak links between VET outcomes and labour market requirements leads employers to have little trust in qualifications. Qualifications systems also focus primarily on young people and offer few opportunities to facilitate and recognise lifelong learning. There are few nationally-accepted qualifications for adults. Validation of non-formal or informal learning is limited or nonexistent. VET also has a low status and accordingly students usually prefer higher education.

INFORM - Issue 13 - National qualifications frameworks: contributing to better qualifications
What are national qualifications frameworks?
National qualifications frameworks or NQFs classify qualifications according to a hierarchy of levels in a grid structure. Each level is defined by a set of descriptors indicating the learning outcomes relevant to qualifications at that level, which vary in number according to national needs. Currently NQFs have 5, 7, 8, 10 and 12 levels.
Qualifications in an NQF can be compared by individuals, employers and institutions. When different countries’ NQFs are linked internationally, qualifications can be compared, which in turn supports mobility. But the implications of establishing and using an NQF go well beyond simply classifying and comparing qualifications.
Countries develop NQFs for many reasons. While many EU Member States use NQFs to coordinate their existing qualifications systems more efficiently, ETF partner countries use them to support wider national education and training reforms. These include bringing education and training closer to the labour market, developing relevant qualifications, creating progression routes linking vocational education and training (VET) with higher education, and working towards a greater recognition of qualifications within the country and abroad.
NQFs are not new, but the recent surge in the number of countries developing them is remarkable for its speed and geographical coverage. Before 2000, only a handful of countries had NQFs. Now 142 countries worldwide have embarked on developing NQFs, including 27 of the ETF’s 31 partner countries. NQFs are part of a wider search for international solutions in education and training. They are also an attempt to support mobility at a time when economies are increasingly integrated and interdependent, where technical specifications of products or services are becoming more unified and where labour migrates across borders.

Currently, Asia is represented by some 57 universities in the top 400 World University Rankings, published every October by Times Higher Education (THE). In order to meet ever growing interest in rankings in Asia and demand for more information about the Asian academic landscape, THE released for the first time in April 2013 a dedicated Asia rankings list, documenting on the top 100 universities in the region.
Overall, Japan has 22 institutions in the top 100, the University of Tokyo coming in first, making it the undisputed leader. But looking at the rest of the rankings, Japan might well be resting on its 25 year head-start, as China’s and Korea’s investment in higher education and push for internationalisation strategies is increasingly growing. Next to Japan’s 22 institutions, China and Taiwan also have strong showings, with 15 and 17 institutions respectively. Korea comes next, with 14 universities, alongside Hong Kong’s six, all of them in the top 50, a strong performance for such a small territory. To the general surprise and despite its booming economy, India has only three institutions in the top 100, making it the one stand-out country.
What strikes when looking at these top 100, is the diversity amongst the countries fighting for the first places. There are as many as five different countries in the top 10 (Japan, Singapore, Hong Kong, China and Korea), whereas the THE World University Rankings have only two: the US and the UK. The methodology used in the Asia University Rankings is the same as the one used in the World University Rankings, very specifically looking at world-class research-oriented universities. The Asia edition covers a large region, all the way from Turkey to Japan, based on the UN definition of Asia. Although the covered region was purposefully kept broad to look at a global model of excellence that is emerging in Asia, it might be tricky to compare countries like Malaysia, Turkey and Japan. Therefore, a change of methodology might be considered should the rankings be narrowed down to specific regions, like the Middle East of South East Asia. THE Asia University Rankings.

The Europe 2020 strategy, adopted by the European Council in June 2010, is the European Union’s growth strategy for the coming decade. For the EU to become a smart, sustainable and inclusive economy, five key targets have been set, among them the EU’s performance in education. This target aims at reducing the rate of early school leavers below 10% and at increasing the proportion of 30 to 34 year-olds having completed third level education to 40% by 2020. In April 2013, the statistical office of the European Union, Eurostat, released the latest data related to these key objectives, showing that most EU member states made noticeable progress in reducing the rate of early school leaving and increasing the share of people with higher education qualifications. While in 2005, 16% of the population in the EU27 aged 18-24 had at most lower secondary education, in 2012 this number dropped to 13%. As for the tertiary education attainment, 36% of persons aged 30 to 34 had completed tertiary education in 2012, compared with 28% in 2005.
However, there are great disparities between the different countries and between males and females. In Ireland, 51% of 30 to 34 year-olds have completed tertiary education, for only 22% in Italy, Malta and Romania. Cyprus (49.9%), Luxemburg (49.6%) and Lithuania (48.7%) closely follow Ireland. As for the gender divide in the EU27, on average, more women achieved tertiary education than men. Regarding early school leavers, Slovenia takes the lead, with only 4.4% of 18 to 24 year-olds currently not in further education or training, compared with 24.9% in Spain, closely followed by Malta (22.6%) and Portugal (20.8%). Next to Slovenia, the lowest proportions were observed in Slovakia (5.3%), the Czech Republic (5.5%) and Poland (5.7%). In all member states except Bulgaria, women were less likely to become early school leavers than men (11.0% compared with 14.5%). But overall, the indicators published by Eurostat seem to suggest that the bar has been set to low. Twelve member states (Belgium, Cyprus, Denmark, Finland, France, Ireland, Lithuania, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Spain, Sweden and the UK) already exceeded the 40% share of 30 to 34 year olds with a higher education degree, and twelve member states (Austria, Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, Ireland, Lithuania, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia and Sweden) have early school leaving rates below the 10% target. Furthermore, eight countries (Denmark, Cyprus, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Finland and Sweden) already met or exceeded their national-specific goals, defined country-by-country in order to meet the EU average. The easy attainment of the EU education targets, seven years early, may suggest that the bar has been set too low for many countries. But the averages of 36% and 13% show that there still is some way to go before the EU reaches the headline goals of 40% and 10% respectively. Europa - News Release. Eurostat.

Towards ‘deep’ internationalisation - ACA Director Bernd Wächter’s impressions of Josef Mestenhauser’s latest masterpiece. Josef A. Mestenhauser. Reflections on the Past, Present, and Future of Internationalizing Higher Education: Discovering Opportunities to Meet the Challenges. Published by the Global Programs and Strategy Alliance at the University of Minnesota, 2011.
Few, very few indeed, have influenced the theory and practice of internationalisation more profoundly than Josef A. Mestenhauser.  Over a period of more than six decades, the Czech-born Mestenhauser has set the agenda for ‘international education’. He transformed international affairs at the University of Minnesota, received numerous high distinctions and awards, was elected president of NAFSA and, in the recent past, acted as an honorary consul of the Czech Republic for the five Upper Midwest States. To his 120+ publications on international education, he has now added a new one, a fascinating and instructive read entitled “Reflections on the past, present and future of internationalizing higher education”. The 180-pages volume, which was published by the University of Minnesota, bears the evocative sub-title “Discovering opportunities to meet challenges”.
The sub-title is indicative of the main points of Mestenhauser’s analysis. Internationalisation of higher education has developed more in the past 20 years than in the centuries before and has lost some of its marginality. But at the same time, it has become much more complex and needs to respond to the challenge of a fast-developing body of international knowledge. Thus, while we have made progress, we have also fallen further behind. To get out of the trap, Mestenhauser advocates what I (not he) would like to term ‘deep internationalisation’. He plausibly and intelligently argues that we need a new concept of internationalisation, which goes beyond mere branding and marketing, and which also overcomes the organisational dispersion of international tasks at higher education institutions. At the same time, it requires the inclusion of international knowledge into the teaching and learning in all disciplines. Administratively, Mestenhauser argues in favour of the creation of “super centres” for internationalisation, to overcome unhelpful divisions and to create a pool of expertise. Mestenhauser‘s book is also an ode to the ‘international education professionals’, whose dedication he feels is not honoured in terms of recognition and pay. He deplores that their knowledge, ‘international knowledge’, is wrongly rated inferior to disciplinary and academic knowledge.  All of this is delivered with the grand man’s typical mix of rigorous analysis, near-encyclopaedic knowledge, great humility and charm. For the benefit of all of us, I sincerely hope that this major work is only one of many more to come. My wish might be granted, as apparently another monograph is already in the works.
by Bernd Wächter
Director
Academic Cooperation Association
This publication is available in alternative formats upon request. Direct requests to the Global Programs and Strategy Alliance, global@umn.edu.

Towards ‘deep’ internationalisation - ACA Director Bernd Wächter’s impressions of Josef Mestenhauser’s latest masterpiece. Josef A. Mestenhauser. Reflections on the Past, Present, and Future of Internationalizing Higher Education: Discovering Opportunities to Meet the Challenges. Published by the Global Programs and Strategy Alliance at the University of Minnesota, 2011.
Few, very few indeed, have influenced the theory and practice of internationalisation more profoundly than Josef A. Mestenhauser.  Over a period of more than six decades, the Czech-born Mestenhauser has set the agenda for ‘international education’. He transformed international affairs at the University of Minnesota, received numerous high distinctions and awards, was elected president of NAFSA and, in the recent past, acted as an honorary consul of the Czech Republic for the five Upper Midwest States. To his 120+ publications on international education, he has now added a new one, a fascinating and instructive read entitled “Reflections on the past, present and future of internationalizing higher education”. The 180-pages volume, which was published by the University of Minnesota, bears the evocative sub-title “Discovering opportunities to meet challenges”.
The sub-title is indicative of the main points of Mestenhauser’s analysis. Internationalisation of higher education has developed more in the past 20 years than in the centuries before and has lost some of its marginality. But at the same time, it has become much more complex and needs to respond to the challenge of a fast-developing body of international knowledge. Thus, while we have made progress, we have also fallen further behind. To get out of the trap, Mestenhauser advocates what I (not he) would like to term ‘deep internationalisation’. He plausibly and intelligently argues that we need a new concept of internationalisation, which goes beyond mere branding and marketing, and which also overcomes the organisational dispersion of international tasks at higher education institutions. At the same time, it requires the inclusion of international knowledge into the teaching and learning in all disciplines. Administratively, Mestenhauser argues in favour of the creation of “super centres” for internationalisation, to overcome unhelpful divisions and to create a pool of expertise. Mestenhauser‘s book is also an ode to the ‘international education professionals’, whose dedication he feels is not honoured in terms of recognition and pay. He deplores that their knowledge, ‘international knowledge’, is wrongly rated inferior to disciplinary and academic knowledge.  All of this is delivered with the grand man’s typical mix of rigorous analysis, near-encyclopaedic knowledge, great humility and charm. For the benefit of all of us, I sincerely hope that this major work is only one of many more to come. My wish might be granted, as apparently another monograph is already in the works.
by Bernd Wächter
Director
Academic Cooperation Association
This publication is available in alternative formats upon request. Direct requests to the Global Programs and Strategy Alliance, global@umn.edu.

ACA’s associate member, the Institute of International Education (IIE), a private non-profit leader in the international exchange of people and ideas, has recently been active in publishing new research.
The latest report, entitled “Rebuilding Higher Education in Myanmar”, presents findings from a recent IIE delegation and includes observations on the context of higher education in Myanmar, an analysis of needs facing the sector and recommendations to support partnerships and academic exchanges. The report was released and discussed at a bi-national conference call on 12 April 2013, dealing with higher education cooperation between the U.S. and Myanmar. IIE President Allan Goodman moderated the discussion, and representatives of 50 U.S. colleges and universities called in to take part. The briefing paper is intended to provide policy makers, foundations, private sector corporations, and higher education professionals with an overview of potential areas for engagement and will help facilitate the timely implementation of much-needed higher education capacity building activities that will be critical for the next phase of Myanmar’s economic development.
The IIE also released the spring 2013 IIENetworker magazine "Higher Education and International Development" as a free interactive web flipbook. The issue examines a wide range of international development strategies that colleges, universities, and other organisations have devised and implemented to foster economic and educational growth around the world. Among the topics covered in this issue are the interactions between higher education and international development aid, based on the findings of a long-term research project of the Higher Education Research and Advocacy Network in Africa, as well as the partnerships at the nexus of global change and the critical role of leadership training.
Past issues of IIENetworker are available in the IIE’s digital edition archives.
Report - Rebuilding Higher Education in Myanmar
For more information, please visit the IIE’s website.

Quality education and good reputation of research and studies are among the top listed reasons for international students to choose Norway as their study destination.
During the fall of 2012, the Norwegian Centre for International Cooperation in Education (SIU) conducted a survey among 2 104 international students enrolled in 36 Norwegian higher education institutions. Both exchange students and full degree students (i.e. doing their entire degree in Norway) answered the survey.
An increasing number of international students reported that they were satisfied or very satisfied with their experience as a foreign student in Norway (88%, compared with 86% in 2010 and 84% in 2008), exchange students being slightly more content than full degree students. Students from the Netherlands and Spain were the happiest.
“I didn`t know anything about Norway before I came, and I love it here. I love the nature and outdoor life, the cities, social opportunities, the welfare system, everything - except the prices.” (Bachelor student from the USA)
Some students found the Norwegian weather a bit disappointing:  “I thought there would be some sunshine during fall. But actually there is no sunshine at all.” (Master student from China). Read more...

DAAD’s Strategy 2020, which outlines the organisation’s objectives and agenda for the upcoming years, is now publicly available. It provides detailed information on planned DAAD initiatives and priorities towards further internationalisation of German higher education as well as international mobility and cooperation in this area. Next to the main objectives already published earlier this year (see ACA Newsletter – Education Europe, February 2013), the strategy addresses the expansion of the worldwide DAAD network, the continuation of the German-Arabic partnership for transformation as well as the Initiative Deutsch, which aims to extend the DAAD lecturer’s programme in more than 100 countries. More (in German). DAAD Strategy 2020 (German & English).
New DAAD young talents programme for computer scientists: FITweltweit
With its newly launched programme FITweltweit the DAAD will be supporting ICT students and researchers on different levels with research-oriented studies abroad. The aim is to support German ICT researchers in their academic careers by adding an international dimension to their research. Master and PhD students will have the opportunity to conduct research for their thesis projects abroad. Furthermore, post-doctoral students will get the chance to implement research projects at the International Computer Science Institute (ICSI) in Berkeley or at the National Institute of Informatics (NII) in Tokyo. FITweltweit is funded by the Federal Ministry for Education and Research (BMBF) with a budget of EUR 8.8 million. More (in German).
DAAD pilot project welcomes research and education policy makers from Egypt and Tunisia in Germany
The DAAD programme “Training for Arab Policy Makers in Higher Education and Sciences” aims to provide customised knowledge for experts and decision-makers in the field of higher education and research management. For a period of four weeks, ten guests from Egypt and Tunisia seize the opportunity to get to know the practical dimension of the decision-making structures in the German education and science system. The objective of the project is to promote the democratic transition in the respective countries by supporting the development of their higher education sectors. More (in German).
Germany and Greece reinforce their research cooperation
Germany and Greece will expand their collaboration in research and development. They will provide funding of around EUR 10 million until 2015 for extensive bilateral research projects in cooperation with the public and the private sector. The objective is to promote programmes that address the economic challenges in Greece and in the world, to contribute to economic development and to strengthen the competitiveness of both countries. More (in German).