Formation Continue du Supérieur

This Cedefop report reviews progress made across Europe in 2007-10 in developing guidance policy coordination, quality assurance mechanisms, access to services and career management skills. The review shows that the EU policy framework and changing economic conditions have encouraged closer collaboration between policy makers, guidance professionals and researchers. Together they are locating assets and resources, identifying and engaging stakeholders, defining and completing joint goals and objectives, and balancing a diverse range of interests. These partnerships help everyone involved – education and employment sectors, various policy levels, and practitioners - to work more efficiently.   The challenge is now to agree on what needs to be done to create a truly lifelong guidance system across all sectors, life situations and countries. Such services will support not just lifelong learning, but social inclusion and active citizenship for all. Download Lifelong guidance across Europe-reviewing policy progress and future prospects.

Assessing and recognising skills
Governments have been introducing skills and competence strategies not just to help people into jobs, but to help break the cycle of low skills, short-term jobs and low wages. Information, guidance and counselling are usually a core component and integral element of such strategies. Within these strategies many countries have taken active measures to improve the assessment and recognition of skills acquired through various means throughout all aspects of life: work, home, school, sports, hobbies, and more.
Competences gained through work experience and through non-formal and informal learning are being assessed and recognised more and more frequently across Europe. However, adults are often not aware of the qualification opportunities available to them, and they may have a restricted view of their own skills and know-how. For adults to choose an appropriate and realistic qualification path, it is necessary to clarify their expectations and deepen their self-knowledge, and to map out the alternatives to reach the preferred qualification. Depending on the competence, the client may get access to an education programme, exemption from parts of the programme itself or even a competence certificate or diploma to recognise either a completed programme or completed modules of the programme.
European guidelines for validating non-formal and informal learning (Cedefop, 2009a) suggest that the potential candidates and those already in the process of receiving validation should have access to impartial information, advice and guidance. A validation system should be responsive to the needs of the individual who seeks validation and work towards tailor-made solutions. Candidates need to be advised, for example, about the standards to be met and the form of evidence required for demonstrating learning outcomes. When completing the validation procedure, candidates should also be given information about potential routes to further qualification. Finally, a clear distinction should be made between guidance linked to assessment issues and guidance related to the validation process itself. These two dimensions in guidance provision call for different professional skills from practitioners delivering the service.
The selected examples below illustrate some recently developed assessment tools across Europe and how and where they can be accessed. The German ProfilPASS (Profilpass http://www.profilpass-online.de) self-assessment instrument is used by guidance services to review, document and assess informally acquired competences, regardless of where they were acquired, and record them in a competence portfolio. It was initially offered as a validation tool for adults, but in 2007, the ProfilPASS for young people was introduced. ProfilPASS seeks to identify an individual’s educational, professional and life goals (Cedefop, 2008b, 2010d, 2010e). In Iceland two training centres owned and operated by social partners offer guidance on how to get ‘real competences’ evaluated and certified. The Education and Training Service Centre provides guidance at the workplace (This service evolved from a Leonardo da Vinci project called Workplace guidance for lower-paid workers (ISL/03/B/F/PP/164001) and the Vocational Education and Training Centre puts more emphasis on assisting those who have partly completed education for regulated professions, but need additional (most often general) education to get their journeyman’s exam (Cedefop, 2009d).
Building up the skills of guidance experts in competence assessment has been an issue in some countries, such as Bulgaria, where staff of the Employment agency participated in a related training programme in 2007. The Bulgarian competence assessment tool helps to determine the knowledge, skills, motivation, professional experience, personal interests and values of an individual client, and allows people to consider their continuing vocational training and future job options (Cedefop, 2008b). The Slovenian system of craftsman exam (The conditions to enter the craftsman exam are the diploma of the three year vocational education programme and two years of practical experiences from the field in which the candidate wishes to pass the exam) is a solid example of validation of non-formal learning within the formal system for acquiring higher levels of education; it is also an example of how to interweave education and the labour market. It offers the candidates an opportunity to attain an education title different from their original field of study. The success of this measure is demonstrated by high number of individuals who have successfully passed the exam to date and who are currently preparing for the exam. All candidates are adult learners in full time employment who are given information and guidance support for the validation process (Cedefop, 2008b).
Promotional measures are needed to create visibility of services that are either new or not that well known by the target audience. In 2009, the project directorate for Learning&Working in the Netherlands launched a campaign on national television, encouraging people to obtain their ‘experience certificate’. The resultant interest identified problems in how to ensure that the Accreditation of prior learning quality code is applied by various institutions (In the Netherlands, the government has laid down the rules concerning APL (Quality Code, supervision by the Inspectorate or the Dutch-Flemish Accreditation Organisation), but the implementation is a non-subsidised activity by schools, universities or other applicable institutions) in a uniform way (Cedefop, 2010d).

The European policy agenda calls for an increase in the qualification levels of the working population and for overcoming the institutional divide between vocational and general education. In this spirit, common EU instruments such as the European Qualifications Framework (EQF) and European Credit System for Vocational education and Training (ECVET) cover all qualification levels. This research paper, covering 13 countries and six sectors, examines the kind of higher qualifications that are currently offered within vocational education, including their features, governance patterns, and degree of academisation. The paper also discusses wider issues such as parity of esteem between vocational and academic education, and the forms and degree of labour market involvement. Download Vocational education and training at higher qualification levels.

Conclusions
This research paper aims at improving the understanding of vocationally oriented education and training, describing the rationales, characteristics and future development of vocational education and training at higher qualifications levels. The understanding of VET at higher qualifications levels differs among policymakers and sector stakeholders in education and training systems and in the labour market; it also differs within and between countries.
Framework to VET at higher qualification levels
The definition in use did not contribute to greater clarity since terms such as vocation, occupation or profession are sometimes used as synonyms. Given the diverse national education and policy contexts, and the diversity in recent national tertiary level VET developments, it is not possible to formulate a full definition that satisfactorily covers all elements of tertiary level VET practice in Europe. This led to analysis of VET at higher qualifications levels by considering different dimensions such as policy-making and practices, providers and qualifications and the involvement of labour market stakeholders.
A variety of policymaking organisations were identified for VET provision at higher qualification levels. The major policymaker in almost all countries studied is the Ministry of Education (e.g. the Ministry of Education and Culture in Finland, the Ministry of Science and Higher Education in Poland, Ministry of Education in Norway). In some countries, policymaking roles are shared between institutions (e.g. in France the Ministry of Education is responsible for HE and the Ministry of Labour, Employment and Vocational Training is responsible for vocational training; in Denmark the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation is in charge of all HE initiatives and policies above EQF level 5 but the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries also has an important role within agriculture education). Non-ministerial bodies also play an important role in formulating policies. These include sectoral organisations (e.g. the Nursing Board in Norway or the Nursing and Midwifery Council in UK-England), as well as industry associations (e.g. BITKOM in Germany), chambers of commerce and trade unions (e.g. IG Metall in Germany).
There is substantial variety and diversity of VET policies and practices at tertiary/higher education levels in Europe. The national traditions, contexts and trends determine how VET at higher levels is defined, and if it is recognised as a separate policy issue at all. Unlike the situation at the (upper) secondary education level, the countries involved in this study, with the exception of Germany, do not have a dual system consisting of VET and general/academic education at tertiary education levels. The main underlying reason for this is that while general academic education programmes at the (upper) secondary education level do not prepare students for a vocation or profession (but instead prepare them for entrance in tertiary education programmes), in academic/general higher education a large number of programmes prepare their students for a specific profession: law, medicine, engineering, and business administration are examples.
The policy understanding of VET at tertiary levels can be characterised as follows in the 13 involved countries:
(a) dual system: Germany;
(b) integrated system of certification and recognition: Ireland, France, UKEngland;
(c) tertiary VET part of higher education policies:
(i) higher professional education and university education increasingly integrated: Norway;
(ii) higher professional education and university education kept separate: Czech Republic, Denmark, , the Netherlands, Finland;
(d) policy emphasis on academic tertiary education: Greece, Poland;
(e) no explicit focus on VET at tertiary education levels: Portugal, Romania.
In policy practices it is difficult to distinguish between higher professional education programmes (including professional programmes offered by universities) and tertiary level VET programmes and courses, since there is no rational ground for arguing that, for example, university engineering programmes are not regarded as VET, while tertiary ICT programmes either offered by public higher professional education institutions or private providers, are regarded as VET.
The main providers of VET programmes at higher qualifications levels in the countries and segments analysed are public HE institutions. In addition to universities, these include business academies in Denmark in agriculture education, public colleges in Norway in nursing, universities of applied sciences and universities of cooperative education in Germany, polytechnics in Finland, and university based professional institutes in France. There is also considerable private HE (e.g. in Poland in the ICT sector or private colleges in Norway with religious components) or emerging private HE (e.g. Germany and France) in some countries. Other providers include private companies (e.g. in the ICT sector in Germany, finance sector in the Netherlands and Portugal), chambers of commerce and crafts (e.g. Germany) and other non-sector or sector specific non-HE institution providers (e.g. the Netherlands and Portugal in the finance sector). The involvement of labour market stakeholders in education and training provision at higher levels was found to be common in almost all countries. The exceptions were Poland, in which the links between academic and employers are generally weak, although the picture was better in the ICT sector, and Portugal in the case of public HE institutions. Diverse types of interaction between providers of education and training and employers were found:
(a) employer consultation in the curriculum development phase. Examples include L&F and 3F in Denmark (representing employers and employees) and industry committees and consultation bodies in Ireland;
(b) work-based assignments and company based thesis works. Examples are found in Germany and Ireland in innovation and technology management, and in Finland and UK-England in SEN study programmes;
(c) apprenticeships, which are a growing tendency in HE in France, the Netherlands in the framework of the accountant degrees. As for Norway and UK-England in the nursing sector clinical practice is a traditional pattern;
(d) private corporate education and training initiatives which include examples in Germany and Ireland in innovation and technology management, and in Portugal in the finance sector;
(e) courses tailored to company needs, for instance in the Netherlands in the finance sector and Ireland in innovation and technology management;
(f) fully work-based learning in the German IT further education system.
There are a number of countries in which there is resistance towards opening up more extensive interaction with labour market players (e.g. the case of universities in Poland, in Romania it mostly exists in theory) or where interaction hardly exists such as in the Czech Republic and Portugal. Qualifications, degrees and study programmes tend to be delivered at EQF levels 6 and 7 in the form of classical Bachelor and Master qualifications, although in Norway there are also EQF level 8 PhD degrees in nursing science.
There is also an increase in other degrees (e.g. professional Bachelor degrees in Denmark and France, professional Master courses in France). There are also different types of HE degrees. For instance, the diploma courses, foundation courses and postgraduate certificates in UK-England. Further, there are specific non-HE certificates (e.g. a certificate at EQF level 6 in the finance sector in Portugal, and strategic and operative professional qualifications in the IT sector in Germany). The discussion on academically and vocationally oriented degrees in education and training systems is still vivid in Europe, with some strong divisions between the two. For instance, in Denmark professional Bachelor degrees are not equal to the traditional Bachelor degrees, and therefore do not provide progression to formal Master courses. There have been efforts to improve this situation with the new EUX exam to bridge the gap between vocational and academic worlds. Also, in Germany, steps have been taken to reduce the divide between VET and academically oriented HE by recognising parts of ICT further training in university ICT studies. There is a tendency towards a vocationalisation of HE as in development of the vocational Bachelor qualifications in France, and combining theoretical studies with vocational/on-the-job training in Germany. The opposite tendency, academisation, can be detected in other countries, e.g. in Norway nursing education is becoming part of HE and there is an expected evolution of specialisation courses into Master programmes, and in UK-England there will be a degree requirement for all nurses from 2013. The emergence of private sector providers at higher levels can also be identified in some countries, including Germany, Ireland and France. Quality assurance is provided in different forms in the various countries. There are independent sectoral quality assurance bodies that approve study programmes (e.g. CTI in France for engineering courses) and agencies for the quality assurance in HE (e.g. NOKUT in Norway, HETAC in Ireland for non university organisations, State Accreditation Committee in Poland, Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education in UK-England, etc.). Other types semipublic entities also participate in this process by reviewing existing and approving new programmes (e.g. vocational committee in Denmark), as well as other professional bodies (e.g. the Nursing and Midwifery Council in that also does the registration of nurses, or the Royal Dutch Institution of Registered Accountants staging examinations in the Netherlands in the case of the officially recognised finance degrees). Other organisations include chambers of commerce and industry through student examinations (e.g. in Germany in case of some further education programmes), independent accreditation agencies (in the case of state-recognised Bachelor and Master programmes in Germany) and universities that have self-accreditation power (e.g. in Ireland).
A new approach to parity of esteem
The first set of dimensions had to be contrasted with existing definitions and deeper analysis of characteristics of qualifications offered at higher levels. The research paper suggests a new approach to parity of esteem between VET at higher qualification levels and traditional HE which is much inspired by the learning outcomes approach to qualifications, the value of professional experience in degree awards and the criteria of employability of graduates. Important to parity of esteem between VET and HE are the national legal frameworks and regulations, and the level of autonomy of universities in determining the entrance requirements for their degree programmes. If all countries are committed to realising parity of esteem between VET and HE qualifications, one of the conditions required to be fulfilled is the updating of national or regional laws to determine entrance requirements for university programmes.
Professional experience is highly valued and required in VET at higher levels in some countries. These include Norway, in which some continuous specialisation courses require professional experience in addition to a Bachelor degree, or in Portugal, for finance sector courses in the private sector provided by private companies. In Ireland, most public HE institutions in innovation and technology management programmes require some years of work experience, which in specific cases can be considered to replace other qualifications if the candidate does not match all the admission requirements. In nursing in UKEngland, prior learning, both practical and theoretical, can be used to reduce study time by as much as one of the three years of the programme and each university evaluates prior learning individually. In two out of the three education programmes analysed for France, professional experience is considered and evaluated individually at the enrolment stage. This is so in one of the study programmes in Denmark.
The introduction of qualifications frameworks represents a shift to learning outcomes, including at the highest levels, in the sense that the skills, competences and knowledge levels of graduates are made explicit in each programme’s description and organisation. In this way students will understand the expected learning outcomes. Further, society at large, including potential employers of the students, can obtain an insight into their expected capabilities. The analysis shows that there is a generally positive attitude towards the shift to learning outcomes. In practice, however, the process is still in an early stage and not all stakeholders had the same positive expectations towards the alignment to the EQF and the use of learning outcomes; examples are the Danish agriculture education case study and trade union opinions of deprofessionalisation in Germany. The use of the learning outcomes approach is still in its early stages in most countries. Stakeholders have generally positive expectations, although this is not always the case (e.g. in the Danish agro-food case study the expectations were
not positive). In Germany and UK-England the need for public discussion on implementing the learning outcomes approach and the involvement of a variety of educational institutions and social actors was considered important. There are a number of different trends with regard to education providers’ implementation of the required reforms. Many involve deeper institutional reforms and take this as an opportunity to improve their systems and activities, while some have addressed the changes in a more superficial way. In some cases, the reforms are reduced to ‘mere cosmetic surgery’ (Reichert, 2010). It is early to say whether the new approach will bring the desired benefits. The next 5 to 10 years will determine whether learning outcomes will actually be used in a meaningful way in educational practices as well as by employers. It can thus be recommended to set up a European monitoring database to follow and assess further developments with respect to the use of learning outcomes in VET activities at EQF levels 6 to 8.
The issue of parity of esteem between VET at EQF levels 6 to 8 and traditional HE is complex and to some extent controversial. In the German case, EQF implementation led initially to a system in which the VET qualifications were positioned lower than the HE qualifications. Under pressure from private sector representatives in the latest proposal, some VET qualifications were then upgraded to the level of HE qualifications. However, at the same time, education pillars were introduced in the German QF system, implying that, a Meister level qualification (which is at the same level of a Bachelor qualification) does not give access to a university Master programme.
In Denmark or Finland, VET (and even higher professional education) Bachelor degrees do not give direct access to university Master programmes. If this tendency of educational pillars in NQFs is implemented in more countries, then the notion of parity of esteem between VET and HE would be mostly an illusion. However, there are also positive experiences. In the Irish system, in which there is an NQF developed, some convergence between VET at EQF levels 6 to 8 and traditional HE can be observed due to the use of a learning outcomes approach. The shift, however, seems to be more in the vocational direction responding to the increasing need to demonstrate practical skills.
While scepticism prevails over whether the shift to learning outcomes would positively impact the parity of esteem between vocationally oriented and academically oriented study programmes at higher qualification levels, there is some conviction that the shift to learning outcomes will actually increase the value of vocationally oriented programmes in comparison with academically oriented ones. As most countries are still in the implementation phase of this approach, there is little evidence on its actual impact on VET developments at EQF levels 6 to 8, including the question of parity of esteem.
Taking the issue forward
Vocational education and training, and professional higher education, are very dynamic in Europe. New VET programme providers at EQF levels 6 to 8, and traditional HE institutions providing higher professional education programmes, are central to the European efforts on employability and economic growth. The last five to ten years have shown important developments in both types of programme. The impression is that traditional HE is not adapting rapidly enough to the (changing) needs of the labour market (e.g. the Czech Republic, Poland, Portugal, and Romania), and especially the needs of the private sector. VET can fill part of the gap left by traditional HE institutions. However, this requires rapid development of new fields, including ICT. The situation in more traditional vocational/professional fields such as nursing, teaching, and agriculture is more balanced in the sense that the relationship between VET /professional higher education providers and the labour market is more stable, and based on common understandings and agreements between employers and providers. The analysis undertaken led to four main proposals for research and policy initiatives:
(a) to set up European level coordination of VET policies and practices for tertiary education. The coordination should be both vertical and horizontal and relate to current development of joint activities between the Bologna and Copenhagen processes;
(b) to develop a widely accepted understanding of VET at EQF levels 6 to 8; it is important to create more transparency of qualifications, which itself calls for a need to clarify the specific nature of VET at tertiary education levels. The questions to be answered for this include:
  (i) how and where is VET at higher levels different from the established higher professional education programmes?
  (ii) how do the targeted skills, competences and knowledge levels of VET of higher level graduates differ from the targeted skills, competences and knowledge levels of traditional higher education graduates?
  (iii) if there are important differences in the targeted skills, competences and knowledge in traditional academic higher education and tertiary level VET, what do these mean for the possibilities to achieve parity of esteem of qualifications and learning outcomes?
  (iv) if the differences are considered to be limited, or of limited relevance from the perspective of the development of effective knowledge policies that include tertiary level VET, what is the rationale for treating tertiary level VET as a separate policy area?
(c) to develop regulatory and funding frameworks for VET at higher levels and professional higher education that relate to the dynamics of education and training. Further, such frameworks should stimulate sector transparency, so that the equal treatment of all vocational and professional fields is prevented. More mature fields such as nursing and agriculture need different frameworks from rapidly developing fields such as ICT;
(d) to share successful examples and practices for VET and labour market interaction in Europe. These practices should be shared between countries and their potentials examined for adoption and adaptation to other national education environments where such mechanisms are scarce or nonexistent, or even to those where cooperation models already exist.
See also The eight types of strategic action lines in the current progress towards ECVET implementation.

Frais d'inscription en hausse, allocation d'autonomie de 500 euros par mois pour tous les étudiants, entretien de niveau à l'entrée de l'université pour adapter leur parcours en licence à leur niveau, suppression définitive des cours en amphi, sélection à l'entrée du master 1, réduction en cinq ans d'un tiers des places en classe préparatoire aux grandes écoles et rattachement administratif de ces prépas aux pôles de recherche et d'enseignement supérieur (PRES)...

Dans son projet pour l'élection présidentielle que Le Monde a obtenu, la contribution sur l'enseignement supérieur et la recherche de Terra Nova décoiffe un peu plus que celui du parti socialiste, dont le think tank est proche!
Pas de rupture, mais des évolutions
Comme le PS, cette contribution ne demande pas la rupture avec les réformes actuelles, mais une évolution, concertée, non seulement de la loi d'autonomie des universités (notamment la création d'un sénat académique capable de démettre un président), mais de l'ensemble du système. "Une réforme progressiste doit viser non pas seulement une économie de la connaissance indispensable pour conserver le rang économique de notre pays dans le monde, mais aussi et surtout une société où la connaissance est une valeur et une fin en soi, une condition première du progrès de l’individu, des sociétés", écrit Terra Nova.
Il poursuit : "Pour partager avec les citoyens la vision progressiste proposée dans ce rapport, il est proposé, avant toute réforme, d’organiser un débat national d’orientation sur l’enseignement supérieur et la recherche dans le but d’acter les réformes prioritaires 2012-2017 voire 2012-2022 et d’engager les moyens que la nation souhaite consacrer à leur réalisation".
500 euros par mois pour tous les étudiants
Ceci posé, Yves Lichtenberger, l'ancien président de l'université de Marne-la-Vallée et rapporteur de ce projet, avance parmi les quelques 42 propositions quelques idées assez peu consensuelles.
Parmi les plus spectaculaires, la mise en place de l'allocation d'autonomie, toujours promise jamais accordée, des étudiants. Selon Terra Nova, en réunissant l'ensemble des moyens dévolus à la vie étudiante (demi-part fiscale, APL, bourses, etc.), il serait possible de donner à tous les citoyens une allocation d'autonomie de 25000 euros à utiliser sur 50 mois pendant l'ensemble de leur vie active. Pour compléter cette allocation, un prêt à taux 0, garanti par l'Etat, serait proposé aux étudiants. Cet effort serait doublé d'un vaste plan de développement du logement étudiant.
La licence à 500 euros par an en 2017
Si cette proposition peut susciter l'intérêt des étudiants, Terra Nova propose des choses un peu moins agréables à leurs oreilles. Le premier est une augmentation "modérée" des frais d'inscription actuels. Les droits nationaux actuels passeraient d'ici à 2017 à 500 euros en licence, à 1000 euros en master, et à 1 500 euros en doctorat. Les boursiers restant exonérés de ces droits.
Plusieurs raisons sont avancées. Cela doit permettre aux étudiants de mieux prendre conscience de la valeur de la formation qui leur est dispensée, de limiter l’absentéisme, et de lutter contre, voire de faire disparaître les inscriptions d’étudiants fantômes désirant uniquement bénéficier de la Sécurité sociale. Elle doit remettre également de "l'égalité" entre les étudiants, les enfants de familles défavorisées étant aujourd'hui les "perdants" de la quasi-gratuité de l'université française. Le débat est certainement lancé sur ce dernier argument. Enfin, ces droits apporteraient en vitesse de croisière un milliard d'euros supplémentaires aux universités.
Baisser le nombre de places en prépa
Autre proposition peu appréciée habituellement des étudiants, la sélection serait avancée en master 1, au lieu de l'actuelle sélection en master 2. La majorité des universitaires la réclament pour donner plus de cohérence à un diplôme de master sur deux années. La majorité des syndicats étudiants la refusent par opposition au principe de sélection. Un véritable débat doit également s'ouvrir sur cette question.
Terra Nova propose ensuite une autre proposition controversée concernant les "très grandes écoles" (Normale Sup, Polytechnique, etc.). "A partir de la rentrée 2012, diminuer de 33 % en cinq ans le nombre de places en classes préparatoires et réduire de 50 % en cinq ans les places aux concours des grandes écoles", écrit le think tank. Le tout, en augmentant les nombres d'admis dans les grandes écoles issus de l'université et n'étant pas passés par une prépa... La proposition n'est pas vraiment étayée et très incantatoire. En revanche, poursuit Terra Nova, si il est "irréaliste et démagogique de promettre la disparition à court terme des grandes écoles ou leur fusion immédiate avec les universités", le rattachement administratif des classes prépas aux PRES est lui possible.
Revaloriser les salaires des personnels
Plus consensuel, le think tank propose une rénovation plus poussée du cycle licence. Finis les cours d'amphis (ce qui est déjà le cas dans beaucoup d'universités), désormais les établissements doivent faire du sur-mesure. Après un entretien de niveau à l'entrée (qui n'est pas une sélection), le parcours de l'étudiant est adapté, par niveau (des passerelles entre niveau étant possibles), en début de licence. Ces licences seraient par ailleurs désormais plus pluridisciplinaires. Pour renforcer l'encadrement à ce niveau de diplôme, des postes de "docteurs-moniteurs" sont ouverts (et non des postes d'enseignants-chercheurs).
Enfin, parmi d'autres mesures sur la recherche (révision du crédit impôt recherche, audit de l'organisation de l'ensemble du système, etc.), deux autres mesures sont proposées : la revalorisation du traitement des enseignants-chercheurs d'un côté, et la poursuite du rapprochement du statut des chercheurs (organismes de recherche) et d'enseignants-chercheurs (université) de l'autre. Cette dernière idée est également très discutée dans le milieu.
Dans l'ensemble, ce projet Terra Nova risque de donner beaucoup de travail au candidat de gauche qui y picorera des idées, tant les tabous abordés sont nombreux. Le débat ne fait que commencer.

Philippe Jacqué. Tasud tõusevad, jaotamise ulatus 500 eurot kuus kõigile õpilastele, säilitades tase sissepääsu juures ülikooli kohandada oma kursusi oma litsentsi tasandil, kustutades kursused aastal kahepaiksed, valiku sissepääsu juures kapten, vähendada viie aasta jooksul jääb kolmandik kohtadest ettevalmistav klasside grandes écoles ja kinnitusest, need postid prépas teadus-ja kõrgharidusruum (PRES)...
Oma eelnõu presidendivalimiste et Le Monde on saanud panus kõrghariduse ja teaduse ja Terra Nova hinge ära natuke rohkem kui et Sotsialistliku Partei, kelle mõttekoda on lähedal! Veel...