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10 août 2012

Citizenship education in Europe - Eurydice

http://eacea.ec.europa.eu/ECid/wel/template-2012/images/logo/logo_en.gifCitizenship education in Europe shows that all European countries now have introduced central regulations to promote student participation in school governance. Encouraging citizens, particularly young people, to actively engage in social and political life has recently become a growing political priority both at national and European level. Because education is viewed as a principal means to promote active citizenship, the report aims to capture how policies and measures relating to citizenship education have evolved over recent years in European countries. To this end, the report provides an overview of the state of play on five main topics: 1) Curriculum aims and organisation; 2) student and parent participation in schools; 3) school culture and student participation in society; 4) assessment and evaluation; 5) and support for teachers and school heads.
The report provides information on 31 of the Eurydice Network countries (EU Member States, Iceland, Norway, Croatia and Turkey). The reference year is 2010/11. Download Citizenship education in Europe.
Foreword

European countries need citizens to be engaged in social and political life not only to ensure that basic democratic values flourish but also to foster social cohesion at a time of increasing social and cultural diversity.
In order to increase engagement and participation, people must be equipped with the right knowledge, skills and attitudes. Civic competences can enable individuals to participate fully in civic life but they must be based on sound knowledge of social values and political concepts and structures, as well as a commitment to active democratic participation in society. Social and civic competences have, therefore, featured strongly in European cooperation in the field of education; they are among the eight key competences identified in 2006 by the Council and the European Parliament as essential for citizens living in a knowledge society (Recommendation 2006/962/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 18 December on key competences for lifelong learning, OJ L 394, 30.12.2006).
Promoting equity, social cohesion and active citizenship through school education is also one of the main objectives of the current Strategic Framework for European Cooperation in Education and Training which extends to 2020 (Council conclusions of 12 May 2009 on a strategic framework for European cooperation in education and training ('ET 2020'), OJ C 119, 28.5.2009). Developing effective approaches to reach this objective is a major challenge for decision-makers and practitioners. This second edition of the Eurydice report 'Citizenship Education in Europe' is intended to inform the debate by providing a comparative analysis of recent national developments in the field.
The report reviews national policies and strategies for reforming the citizenship curricula. It also focuses on measures to encourage 'learning by doing', which is a critical element in an area of learning that requires practical skills. Comparable and detailed information is provided on the regulations, programmes and initiatives that enable students to gain practical experience in social and political life; the methods of assessment used by teachers to evaluate students' practical learning are also discussed. In addition, the changes to initial teacher education and continuing professional development introduced to improve teachers' knowledge of the citizenship curricula and their skills in teaching the subject are examined. Finally, the study investigates the role of the school head in developing and implementing whole school approaches to citizenship education.
In 2010, all the Member States of the European Union adopted the Council of Europe's Charter on Education for Democratic Citizenship and Human Rights Education. I actively support the implementation of the Charter and I am confident that the present Eurydice report, which contains valuable and comparable European-level data, will give yet further impetus to this process. I am convinced it will also offer a timely contribution to the 2013 European Year of Citizenship.
Androulla Vassiliou, Commissioner responsible for Education, Culture, Multilingualism and Youth
GENERAL INTRODUCTION

The pursuit of equity and social cohesion has been a growing political priority over recent years at national and European level. Encouraging citizens, particularly young people, to actively participate in social and political life has been seen as one of the principal means to address these issues; education has, consequently, been identified as a major lever in this respect.
Major policy documents, which have shaped European cooperation in education over the past decade and which will continue to influence developments until 2020, have recognised the importance of promoting active citizenship and, as a result, it has become one of the main objectives for education systems throughout Europe (See Council of the EU: The Concrete Future Objectives of Education and Training Systems. Report from the Education Council to the European Council. 5980/01 (Brussels, 14 February 2001) and Council conclusions of 12 May 2009 on a strategic framework for European cooperation in education and training ('ET 2020'). OJ C 119, 28.5.2009). Furthermore, the European reference framework on key competences for lifelong learning (Recommendation 2006/962/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 18 December on key competences for lifelong learning, OJ L 394, 30.12.2006) proposed that young people should be helped to develop social and civic competences, defined in terms of knowledge, skills and attitudes, during their school education. This competence-based approach calls for new ways of organising teaching and learning in a number of subject areas including citizenship education. A greater focus on practical skills; a learning outcomes approach; and new methods of assessment supported by the continuing development of teachers' knowledge and skills, are all crucial to the successful implementation of key competences. Furthermore, the European framework also demands greater opportunities for students to actively participate in, for example, school-based activities with employers, youth groups, cultural activities and civil society organisations (European Commission, 2009b).
The European Commission has launched several significant initiatives to support Member States in developing the key competence approach. An expert group was set up in 2006 to deliberate and advise on research into and development of indicators in the field of civic competences and active citizenship in education. In particular, this expert group validates the research work of the Centre for research on lifelong learning (CRELL) on building composite indicators relating to the civic competences of young Europeans. Another EU expert group on key competences and curriculum reforms is currently focusing its work on assessment, since this was judged to be one of the most important issues for the successful implementation of a competence-based approach at school. The emphasis is on new assessment methods for measuring progress in the areas crucial to the implementation of key competences – skills development and changing attitudes.
In parallel, the EU Youth Strategy 2010-2018 declared fostering active citizenship, social inclusion and solidarity among all young people as one of its main objectives (Council Resolution of 27 November 2009 on a renewed framework for European cooperation in the youth field (2010-
2018), OJ C311, 19.12.2009 [pdf]. Available at: http://ec.europa.eu/youth/pdf/doc1648_en.pdf [Accessed 07 May 2012]). The Strategy includes several lines of action related to developing citizenship in both formal and non-formal educational activities, for example, ‘participation in civil society and in representative democracy’ and ‘volunteering as a vehicle for social inclusion and citizenship’. In addition, in 2011, two important developments took place: the year was designated as the European Year of Voluntary Activities Promoting Active Citizenship and the Hungarian Presidency chose education for active citizenship as the focus of debate among Education Ministers in an informal meeting in March.
The European Commission’s commitment to promoting active citizenship is longstanding. Two successive action programmes have supported its agenda in this respect. The current Europe for Citizenship Programme (2007-2013) aims to bring citizens closer to the EU and involve them in discussions on its future. It also seeks to encourage active citizenship and promote mutual understanding by bringing people from different parts of Europe together through meetings, exchanges and debates (For more information, see http://ec.europa.eu/citizenship/index_en.htm). Promoting the active participation of European citizens in EU policymaking will also be one of the aims of the 2013 European Year of Citizens for Europe. Finally, the European Commission is cooperating with the Council of Europe to promote the implementation of its Charter on Education for Democratic Citizenship and Human Rights Education, which was adopted by all EU member States in May 2010. In this context, the European Commission and the Council of Europe will organise jointly a conference on the impact of the Charter, to be held in Strasbourg in November 2012.
Objectives and definitions

In the light of these policy developments, the present Eurydice report aims to capture how policies and measures relating to citizenship education have evolved over recent years in European countries. It focuses on the following areas which are integral to the provision of citizenship education:
- Curriculum aims, approaches and organisation
- Student and parent participation in school governance
- School culture and student participation in society
- Student assessment, school evaluation and education system performance
- Education, training and support for teachers and school heads
This report relies on the conceptual framework established in the previous study on the same topic produced by the Eurydice network (Eurydice, 2005), which itself was inspired to some extent by the Council of Europe definitions in its Education for Democratic Citizenship project. As with various other research works in the field of citizenship education, this report derives from an evolved conception of citizenship, acknowledging the fact that it goes far beyond the simple legal relationship between people and the state. This conception of citizenship, which extends to citizens' participation in the political, social and civil life of society, is based on respect for a common set of values at the heart of democratic societies, and can be found in the definition of 'active citizenship' (Hoskins et al., 2006) promoted at European level.
The civic competences needed to be able to actively exercise citizenship, as defined by the European framework for key competences, focus on: a knowledge of basic democratic concepts including an understanding of society and social and political movements; the European integration process and EU structures; and major social developments, both past and present. Civic competences also require skills such as critical thinking and communication skills, and the ability and willingness to participate constructively in the public domain, including in the decision-making process through voting. Finally, a sense of belonging to society at various levels, a respect for democratic values and diversity as well as support for sustainable development are also highlighted as integral components of civic competences.
In the context of this report, citizenship education refers to the aspects of education at school level intended to prepare students to become active citizens, by ensuring that they have the necessary knowledge, skills and attitudes to contribute to the development and well-being of the society in which they live. It is a broad concept, which encompasses not only teaching and learning in the classroom but also practical experiences gained through school life and activities in wider society. It encompasses the narrower concept of ‘civic education’, as defined by the IEA, which is restricted to 'knowledge and understanding of formal institutions and processes of civic life (such as voting in elections)' (IEA 2010a, p. 22).
Scope
This study provides information on 31 of the Eurydice Network countries (Switzerland and Croatia joined the Eurydice network at the beginning of 2011, but only Croatia participated in the present report), including the EU Member States, Iceland, Norway, Croatia and Turkey. All reforms planned for the coming years have also been taken into account where relevant. Primary, lower and upper secondary education (ISCED levels 1, 2 and 3) are covered. The reference year is 2010/11.
Only public-sector schools are included, except in the case of Belgium, Ireland and the Netherlands, where the grant-aided private sector is also covered, since it accounts for the majority of school enrolments. Moreover, in Ireland the vast majority of schools are legally defined as privately-owned but, in fact, are fully state-funded and do not require the payment of fees by parents. In the Netherlands, equal funding and treatment of private and public education is enshrined in the constitution. Information is mainly based on official regulations, recommendations or guidelines issued by national education authorities or, in the case of Belgium, Spain and Germany, the top-level authorities for education referred to here as the ‘central level’.
Content

The report consists of five chapters, each dealing with a different aspect of citizenship education at school in Europe. Specific examples of national policies and practices are presented in a smaller font style in order to set them apart from the main text. These examples provide practical illustrations of the general statements made in the comparative study or they may add to the discussion by providing specific national details. The examples may also show exceptions to what is seen as a general trend in a number of countries.
Chapter 1 provides an overview of the status of citizenship education in central-level curricula and guidelines, and examines which teaching approaches are recommended for this subject area. Provision may either take the form of a dedicated stand-alone or separate school subject (named differently from one country to the next), a topic integrated within other subjects (such as history, geography, etc.) or a cross-curricular theme to be included in all school subjects. The recommended taught time for the separate subjects dedicated to citizenship education is then reviewed. The chapter subsequently looks at the main objectives and content of citizenship education as contained in central level steering documents. Finally, it offers information on teachers' opinions regarding civic and citizenship education, based on the results of the International Civic and Citizenship Education Study (ICCS) of 2009.
Chapter 2 focuses on opportunities for students and parents to participate in school governance, as an aspect of school organisation that can contribute significantly to the development of citizenship knowledge and skills. The chapter provides an in-depth analysis of official regulations and recommendations regarding mechanisms for student and parent involvement in school governance, such as their representation on class councils and school governing bodies. Official regulations and recommendations are put into perspective with data on the actual level of student participation in school elections and in school decision-making, based on results from the ICCS 2009. The chapter also provides information on existing good practice in promoting student involvement in school governance, and existing training programmes to support parent participation.
Chapter 3 continues to discuss how students experience active and democratic citizenship within and beyond the school context. The chapter considers whether countries encourage the promotion of civic action among pupils and civic/democratic values through school life and culture. It reviews and explains how individual countries encourage student participation in society, including in the local community. Finally, it provides information on opportunities for student participation in civic-related community activities across European countries, based on data from the ICCS 2009.
The focus in Chapter 4 is on the evaluation of both provision and outcomes of citizenship education. It discusses the support for teachers in assessing students in the area of citizenship education, particularly with respect to the tools intended to facilitate the assessment of students’ active participation in school life and society. It also examines to what extent students’ achievement in citizenship education is taken into account in decisions on student transition to the next level of education. This chapter analyses whether or not citizenship related issues are considered in school evaluation. And finally, it reviews the monitoring processes used over the last ten years to evaluate the performance of national education systems as they relate to the provision of citizenship education. Chapter 5 explores the qualifications and support for two key groups in the implementation of citizenship education: teachers and school heads. It discusses the qualifications required to teach citizenship and provides illustrations of the wide range of continuing professional development (CPD) programmes related to citizenship education across Europe. It also analyses the role of school heads and investigates whether they have received any specific training to help them implement citizenship education in school.
Descriptions of the main features of national initiatives for encouraging student participation in citizenship-related activities in society are available in the annex. In addition, included on the Eurydice website is country information on the main reforms in citizenship education undertaken since 2005.
Methodology

The scope of the report was defined in cooperation with the National Units of the Eurydice network and the European Commission’s expert group on indicators for active citizenship within the DG for Education and Culture.
This report is based on answers provided by the National Units of the Eurydice network to two questionnaires developed by the Eurydice Unit within the EACEA. The first questionnaire dealt with student participation in school bodies and resulted in a working document on the same topic that was delivered to Education Ministers during the Hungarian presidency (see above). This information from this working document has been incorporated into Chapter 2 of the present report. The second questionnaire, which addresses all the remaining topics covered in this report (see above), was elaborated in close consultation with the Eurydice network.
The policy information is supported by a secondary analysis of relevant quantitative data supplied by the 2009 International Civic and Citizenship Education Study (ICCS) (The study can be consulted at the following web link http://iccs.acer.edu.au/) carried out by the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA).
The Eurydice Unit within EACEA is responsible for drafting the report and it was checked by all National Units participating in the study (Liechtenstein and Switzerland did not participate in this report). The executive summary and the conclusions are the sole responsibility of the Eurydice Unit within EACEA. All contributors are acknowledged at the end of the document. Download Citizenship education in Europe.
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